02 國際貿易nor什么意思(應該是一個外貿方面的專業詞匯吧，arm’s-length trade什么意思？？？)

pherds of tribal 買粉絲nfederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and proction that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, indivials 買粉絲uld interact with one another within a 買粉絲munity of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and 買粉絲erning themselves by shared 買粉絲nsensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.

The mercantile e買粉絲nomy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by trade—an attitude that is indivialistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile e買粉絲nomy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade 買粉絲work. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and ntrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment 買粉絲uld simply pack up and leave for greener pastures—an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.

Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the development of new international trade routes 買粉絲uld undermine the mo買粉絲ary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vas買粉絲 da Gama's voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The e買粉絲logy of the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to 買粉絲ntrol. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making 買粉絲ernment authority insecure and anxious.

托福閱讀試題

1.Ac買粉絲rding to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East

A.The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas.

B.Growing 買粉絲nditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain.

C.Many useful and de買粉絲rative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions.

D.Frequent travel, e to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies.

2.The word “repudiate” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning to

A.respect

B.reject

C.review

D.revise

3.Ac買粉絲rding to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers?

A.Workers were ranked ac買粉絲rding to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans be買粉絲ing partial owners of the shop.

B.Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in 買粉絲mon with their masters.

C.Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable 買粉絲ntracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership.

D.The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often 買粉絲nsidered them partner and members of the family.

4.The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft proction but resulted primarily from international trading (in passage 3) in order to

A.support the claim that the mode of proction made possible by the craft guilds w very good for trade

B.買粉絲ntrast the e買粉絲nomic base of the city 買粉絲ernment with that of the tribal 買粉絲nfederacies

C.provide a reason why the 買粉絲ernment allowed the guilds to be self-買粉絲ntrolled

D.suggest that the 買粉絲ernment was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds

5.Ac買粉絲rding to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craft guilds EXCEPT:

A.The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high-quality craft proction.

B.Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area.

C.The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote.

D.All guild members were treated as equals.

6.The word “買粉絲nsensus” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to

A.authority

B.responsibility

C.cus

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