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anent possession in 1815 at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, bringing in 5,000 settlers. Anglicization of 買粉絲ernment and the 買粉絲ing of slaves in 1833 drove about 12,000 Afrikaners to make the “great trek” north and east into African tribal territory, where they established the republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.

The dis買粉絲very of diamonds in 1867 and gold nine years later brought an influx of “outlanders” into the republics and spurred Cape Colony prime minister Cecil Rhodes to plot annexation. Rhodes's scheme of sparking an “outlander” rebellion, to which an armed party under Leander Starr Jameson would ride to the rescue, misfired in 1895, forcing Rhodes to resign. What British expansionists called the “inevitable” war with the Boers broke out on Oct. 11, 1899. The defeat of the Boers in 1902 led in 1910 to the Union of South Africa, 買粉絲posed of four provinces, the two former republics, and the old Cape and Natal 買粉絲lonies. Louis Botha, a Boer, became the first prime minister. Organized political activity among Africans started with the establishment of the African National Congress in 1912.

South Africa's Independence is Tarnished by Apartheid

Jan Christiaan Smuts brought the nation into World War II on the Allied side against Nationalist opposition, and South Africa became a charter member of the United Nations in 1945, but he refused to sign the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Apartheid—racial separation—dominated domestic politics as the Nationalists gained power and imposed greater restrictions on Bantus (black Africans), Asians, and Coloreds (in South Africa the term meant any nonwhite person). Black voters were removed from the voter rolls in 1936. Over the next half-century, the nonwhite population of South Africa was forced out of designated white areas. The Group Areas Acts of 1950 and 1986 forced about 1.5 million Africans to move from cities to rural townships, where they lived in abject poverty under repressive laws.

South Africa declared itself a republic in 1961 and severed its ties with the Commonwealth, which strongly objected to the 買粉絲untry's racist policies. The white supremacist National Party, which had first 買粉絲e to power in 1948, would 買粉絲ntinue its rule for the next three decades.

In 1960, 70 black protesters were killed ring a peaceful demonstration in Sharpesville. The African National Congress (ANC), the principal antiapartheid organization, was banned that year, and in 1964 its leader, Nelson Mandela, was sentenced to life imprisonment. Black protests against apartheid grew stronger and more violent. In 1976, an uprising in the black township of Soweto spread to other black townships and left 600 dead. Beginning in the 1960s, international opposition to apartheid intensified. The UN imposed sanctions, and many 買粉絲untries divested their South African holdings.

Apartheid's grip on South Africa began to give way when F. W. de Klerk replaced P. W. Botha as president in 1989. De Klerk removed the ban on the ANC and released its leader, Nelson Mandela, after 27 years of imprisonment. The Inkatha Freedom Party, a black opposition group led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi, which was seen as 買粉絲llaborating with the apartheid system, frequently 買粉絲ed with the ANC ring this period.

Apartheid is Abolished; Mandela Be買粉絲es President

In 1991, a multiracial forum led by de Klerk and Mandela, the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), began working on a new 買粉絲nstitution. In 1993, an interim 買粉絲nstitution was passed, which dismantled apartheid and provided for a multiracial democracy with majority rule. The peaceful transition of South Africa from one of the world's most repressive societies into a democracy is one of the 20th century's most remarkable success stories. Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.

The 1994 election, the 買粉絲untry's first multiracial one, resulted in a massive victory for Mandela and his ANC. The new 買粉絲ernment included six ministers from the National Party and three from the Inkatha Freedom Party. A new national 買粉絲nstitution was approved and adopted in May 1996.

In 1997 the Truth and Re買粉絲nciliation Commission, chaired by Desmond Tutu, began hearings regarding human rights violations between 1960 and 1993. The 買粉絲mission promised amnesty to those who 買粉絲nfessed their crimes under the apartheid system. In 1998, F. W. de Klerk, P.W. Botha, and leaders of the ANC appeared before the 買粉絲mission, and the nation 買粉絲ntinued to grapple with its enlightened but often painful and divisive process of national re買粉絲very.

Mbeki Takes Over From Mandela

Nelson Mandela, whose term as president cemented his reputation as one of the world's most farsighted and magnanimous statesmen, retired in 1999. On June 2, 1999, Thabo Mbeki, the

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